So many Kings, and an Emperor, too!

Fontainebleau from François I to Napoleon I

Fontainebleau

Napoleon has been in the news lately, it being the 200th anniversary of his death and everyone in a tizzy about how and if to ‘celebrate’ or ‘commemorate’ the occasion and linguists weighing in on definitions, noting among other thing that to commemorate is the same as to celebrate and so that might be a non-starter, too. I’m talking to you, Emmanuel Macron. But you and I don’t have to worry about linguistics at the moment because we are going to take another field trip, this time to Fontainebleau, just a little over an hour by train from my apartment and probably about the same for you, wherever you live or stay when you are in Paris. But wait, of course there IS a Napoleon connection.

I went to Fontainebleau last October, when I thought I could visit the temporary exhibitions in Paris at my leisure. Because I was sure that they weren’t going to shut the country down, again. Temporary exhibitions are like chocolate to me. To be savored, not rushed. So, after Auvers-sur-Oise and Pontoise but before Chantilly and Honfleur, I went to Fontainebleau. But as it turned out, I did miss quite a few exhibitions last fall because they actually did close the country down again, until, well until just now. So this time, I have booked a museum a day for the next few weeks because you just never know.

Figure 1. Francesco Primaticcio, Penelope & Olysses, School of Fontainebleau, 1550s

There is a crazy amount of stuff to write about if Fontainebleau is your subject. So we are going to limit ourselves to two topics, both of which combine a little bit of art and a little bit of politics - the School of Fontainebleau (Figure 1) and mostly Francois I, who reigned from 1528 to 1547 and Napoleon, who has his very own museum at Fontainebleau, near the Cour d’Honneur where he bade farewell to his loyal troops on 20 April 1814. The museum is dedicated to the history of the First Empire, Napoleon I's 10 year reign, from Coronation at Notre Dame in 1804 to Abdication at Fontainebleau in 1814 (Figure 2)

Figure 2. Napoleon at Fontainebleau, eve of abdication, 1814, Paul Delaroche, 1840

Herewith a very brief history of the chateau. It had the kind of trajectory we all dream of, it started out a modest medieval hunting lodge and ended up a grand renaissance chateau. Fontainebleau is sometimes called a chateau and sometimes called a palais. Which is confusing but it seems as if it is all about location, location, location. A chateau is rural, a palais is urban. But what size does a village have to be for its chateau to be a palais? The Louvre, obviously a palais. Fontainebleau, let’s go with chateau. If anyone wants to argue, they can do it with someone else.

Although there really is a there, there, in Fontainebleau. For example, the ‘place’ in front of the chateau is, well was, filled with cafes and teeming with people when I was there, and will be again, hopefully soon. The hotel across from the chateau is a veritable Napoleon museum, too, with memorabilia in vitrines in the public spaces and tons of Napoleonic decorations throughout. It was built in the 16th century to accommodate courtiers while the king was in residence at the chateau. It became a hotel in 1764 and since 1810, it has been called ‘Aigle Noir’ a Napoleonic reference.

Fontainebleau was an important hang-out for most of the French kings between Francois I and Napoleon, among them Henri II and Henri IV, who were from different dynastic families, Valois and Bourbon, but who both married Medici girls. Henri III was Henri II’s third son and the third to take over after his father died in a jousting match, but when Henri III was assassinated in 1589, the Valois line came to an end.

Figure 3. Diane and her Hounds, Fontainebleau garden

A Bourbon was recruited and he was crowned Henri IV in 1589. This Henri was partial to Fontainebleau, especially the gardens which he enhanced and enlarged. (Figure 3) He had six children with his second wife, Marie de Medici. He also had about 11 illegitimate children with a variety of mistresses. I saw a show on the Histoire channel a couple weeks ago about Henri IV. In one scene, Le Vert Galant (Henri’s nickname) was having dinner with some of those illegitimate children. Le Vert Galant means, in this context, an old guy who can still get it up (pre-Viagra). And Henri IV did, rather a lot and with quite a few women. One of those women was Gabrielle d’Estrées, with whom he had at least 3 children and of whom an anonymous French artist of the Fontainebleau School, about which we will speak in a moment, painted a fabulously bizarre portrait, with her sister, in a bathtub. (Figure 4) One sister performs a very elegant nipple tweak on the other, while somebody’s lady in waiting, fully clothed, sews in the background, maybe baby clothes, maybe Gabrielle is pregnant again, maybe this is a birth announcement.

Figure 4. Gabrielle d’Estrées and her Sister, annon. Fontainebleau School, late 16th c.

Louis XIV spent more time here than any other king, all that wild game to hunt and shoot and maybe, who knows, even to eat. Louis also signed the Edict of Fontainebleau here which revoked the Edit of Nantes signed by Henri IV, the first of which gave, the second of which rescinded, tolerance for the Protestants. Marie Antoinette had her bedrooms renovated here. But what with the French Revolution, followed by her decapitation, she didn’t have much time to use it.

So, back to Francois I, who got started at Fontainebleau after two years, (1525 - 1527), as the guest, no make that the prisoner, of Charles V of Spain, the Holy Roman Emperor. After that embarrassment, and with his two sons taken hostage in his stead (which was to last for another 4 years) Francois decided to do something kick ass. Turn a dilapidated 11th century hunting lodge into a gorgeous chateau. Sounds reasonable to me, too. (Figure 5)

Figure 5. School of Fontainebleau, interior with Francois Premier’s initials and emblem, Fontainebleau.

Finding first rate artists was not a problem. After the Sack of Rome in 1527, Italy was teeming with artists with nothing to do, all the projects they had been working on were postponed or went bust. Sound familiar? And of course Francois I had already welcomed an Italian artist to France a decade earlier, Leonardo de Vinci, who had brought the Mona Lisa with him. Leonardo lived in Amboise for 3 years and may have died in Francois’ arms. (Figure 6)

Figure 6. Leonardo dying in Francois Premier’s arms, J.A.D. Ingres, 1818

At Fontainebleau, two artists in particular are associated with what came to be called the Fontainebleau School, Rosso Fiorentino (Figure 7) and Francesco Primaticcio, (above, #1). The style with which they are associated is called Mannerism. One of my all time favorite styles.

Figure 7. Moses Defending the Daughters of Jethro, Rosso Fiorentino, 1523, Uffizi.

Mannerism is the name given to the style that followed the High Renaissance, a period associated with the works of Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo. And it seemed that with those artists and their colleagues, all the problems of depiction and composition had been solved. They understood anatomy and physiognomy; they knew how to depict emotions through facial expression and body gestures. Their compositions were harmonious and balanced. (Figures 8)

Figure 8. School of Athens, Raphael, 1511, Vatican.

Where was art to go, what were young artists to do if perfection had already been achieved. They decided to go in a new direction. Rather than look to nature, they looked to art, not to replicate the art of their predecessors but to exaggerate it. The hallmark of Mannerism is artificiality. Based largely at courts and in intellectual circles around Europe, Mannerist art emphasized asymmetry and unnatural elegance. Tension and instability were sought rather than balance and clarity. Mannerists rejected single point perspective, opting instead for distorted perspectives. And their use of color is completely wild with pure and intense hues of blues, green, pinks, and yellows.

The style that evolved under Rosso and Primaticcio at Fontainebleau combined painted and frescoed panels with stucco nudes, garlands, and other forms sculpted in high relief. Rosso developed a technique called “strapwork” which treated stucco like pieces of leather that could be rolled, folded, and cut into shapes. (Figure 9 & 10) Many of the works of Rosso and Primaticcio have not survived, they were painted over or completely destroyed during later remodeling of the Chateau. But the paintings were reproduced in prints, mostly etchings, which served two purposes, in the immediate, the prints disseminated the style throughout France and Europe and now they serve as records of lost paintings.

Figure 9. Fontainebleau, School of Fontainebleau, 16th century.

Figure 10. Diana, the Nymph of Fontainebleau, 16th c, MMA, New York.

In addition to Fiorentino and Primaticcio working at Fontainebleau, Francois I was presented with two of the most famous, fabulous Mannerist works of art. Benvenuto Cellini’s Salt Cellar, which he made when he was at Fontainebleau and Bronzino’s ‘Venus and Cupid’.

Figure 11. Salt Cellar, present for Francois I, Benvenuto Cellini, 1543, Vienna.

Cellini’s 10” tall Salt Cellar is called Terre e Mare (Land and Sea). (Figure 11) Sea is represented by a male figure reclining beside a ship which holds the salt. Land is a woman reclining next to a temple, which holds the pepper. The piece is made of ivory, enamel and gold that was rolled and hammered by hand rather than cast in a mold. Elegant, elongated, exaggerated, and articulated, made of beautifully worked, expensive materials.

Figure 12. ‘Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time’ Agnolo Bronzino, 1546, National Gallery, London

Agnolo Bronzino’s completely wild, good thing there was no penalty for pedophilia, ‘Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time’ (Figure 12) depicts Cupid and his mother, Venus, kissing. She has the apple of Paris, hers because she was the most beautiful goddess of all, while her son tweaks her nipple in a similarly fond way as Gabrielle d’Estrées’ sister did hers (above, Figure 4) Folly, to the right is ready to fling a bunch of rose petals at them. Old Man Time, above Folly, seems to be pulling aside the curtain that was maybe hiding them. The identity of the other three figures and the meaning of this painting is pretty much a mystery. But one thing is sure - the painting displays the ambivalence, eroticism and obscurity that are the hallmarks of Mannerism.

As I was thinking about perfection achieved - and then what? I started thinking about the theory that posits that nations, like living creatures, pass through the same cycle as we do, that is, they go from birth to maturity to decline and finally to decay and death. I read that the process, the cycle, for empires takes about 250 years. If we take 1776 as the start date of the American Empire, then 2026 will be year 250. So the country’s current slide toward who knows what, isn’t surprising, simply predictable.

The decline and fall of empires seems as good a segue as any to ’Part Two’ of this two part discussion, Napoleon and Fontainebleau. We are talking about a guy who invited Pope Pius VII to Paris to crown him in 1804 and then decided to crown himself, reasoning that if someone else crowned him it would be admitting that someone else was more powerful. But grabbing a crown and jamming it on your own head isn’t good art or especially attractive propaganda, so his court painter, J.L David shows the next moment, when Napoleon, already crowned with his laurel wreath, crowns his Empress, Josephine. (Figure 13) Eight years later, Napoleon invited the Pope back up to Paris and had him imprisoned at Fontainebleau for a couple of years - from 1812 to 1814. But by April 6, 1814, the gig was up for Napoleon and he abdicated, at Fontainebleau. On April 20th, still at Fontainebleau, he concluded his farewell speech to the assembled soldiers with these words; “Adieu, my children! Would that I could press you all to my heart. Let me at least embrace your standard….!’ (Figure 14) And that he did and then he got into his carriage and left for Elba. Remember when Trump grabbed a flag and hugged it after one of those tirades, I mean, speeches?

Figure 13. Coronation of Josephine, 1804, detail. Jacques Louis David, 1080, Louvre, Paris.

Figure 14. Napoleon bidding adieu to the Imperial Garde at Fontainebleau, April 20, 1814. Antoine Montfort, Napoleon Museum, Fontainebleau.

Which got me to thinking about George Washington. He and Napoleon Bonaparte were both successful military men. Both leaders of their respective countries at the dawn of a new era for each. One country had committed regicide symbolically by tearing down a statue of George III in New York. The other country had committed actual regicide when Louis XVI was guillotined. One military man had agreed to serve as civilian leader only reluctantly. The other seized power through a coup. Washington was horrified by honorific titles. He became Mr. President after he and members of Congress rejected all the other titles because they were too close, well too close to titles. Napoleon selected Emperor, after 1000 years and because king didn’t have a very good ring to it at the time. Now he, like his predecessors, Louis, Francois, Charles, et.al. is known by his first name.

In Gilbert Stuart’s Landsdowne portrait of George Washington, from 1796, (Figure 15) the President wears a black velvet suit. He is a civilian. He stands to greet a visitor. We know it is daytime, we can see the blue sky behind him. National symbols abound. The leg of his chair is decorated with references to the Great Seal of the United States, 13 white stars in a blue field, 13 alternating red and white stripes underneath. The visible leg of his writing table is the bound fasces, symbol of power restrained. Above are two American Bald Eagles, with a bundle of arrows in their talons, symbol of readiness for war. Under Washington’s desk are several books, references to his past accomplishments as a military leader and his current ones, as a civilian leader. Two more books, The Federalist and Journal of Congress, refer to the laws to which he and all American citizens are bound.

Figure 15. Landsdowne Portrait of George Washington, 1796, Gilbert Stuart, National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.

Figure 16. The Emperor Napoleon in his Study in the Tuileries, Jacques Louis David, 1812, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

Jacques Louis David’s portrait from 1812,“The Emperor Napoleon in his Study in the Tuileries,” (Figure 16) shows Napoleon wearing the colonel’s uniform of the Imperial Guard Foot Grenadiers—a group of elite soldiers that Napoleon personally commanded. The two medals pinned to Napoleon’s left breast celebrate the extent of his rule, the Order of the Iron Crown, which Napoleon founded in 1805 and the French Legion of Honor. A gilded regal lion decorates the leg of Napoleon’s desk. Bees, a Napoleonic symbol, which also coincidentally just happen to resemble the fleurs-de-lys, an ancient symbol of French royalty, embellish the velvet chair cover. A rolled up sheet of paper with the letters COD on the right side of the desk is a reference to French Civil Law, the code Napoleon established in 1804. It is nighttime, the candles have burned down, the clock reads 4:13. Napoleon is alone, in his military uniform, writing the Code Civil for his fellow citizens while they sleep. Napoleon liked the painting, he is supposed to have said to the artist, “You have found me out, dear David; at night I work for my subjects' happiness, and by day I work for their glory.’

Washington refused to serve a third term and retired in 1796, the same year Stuart completed the portrait of him. Napoleon lasted another two years after David finished this portrait before he was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Mar a Lago, I mean the island of Elba. But he wasn’t through, 100 days later, he returned and only after one last resounding defeat was he sent far enough away to keep out of trouble, to St Helena. The U.S.A. has some remote islands that could become useful ….

Copyright © 2021 Beverly Held, Ph.D. All rights reserved

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